New Mars Forums

n 1966, the United States Air Force and Lockheed introduced the Star Clipper concept. At the time, it was “an Earth-to-orbit spaceplane based on a large lifting body spacecraft and a wrap-around drop tank.”

After 1966, NASA began a space program that included a permanently manned space station, a small base on the moon, and the hopes of a soon-to-be crewed mission to Mars. This is where the concept of a “logistics vehicle” emerged in order to lower the cost of space station operations. The vehicle’s role would be focused on changing crews on the space station on a weekly basis.

In 1967, a whole-day meeting was arranged to evaluate the logistics vehicle concept. The Air Force and NASA had already joined forces on a study of existing technologies in the “Integrated Launch and Re-entry Vehicle” project, or ILRV. The meeting resurfaced the ILRV research calling on the same industry partners to present different logistics vehicle concepts.

That’s when Lockheed submitted Star Clipper while General Dynamics introduced their Triamese and Chrysler SERV. Soon, NASA’s own teams joined in on the fun supporting mostly the “classic” flyback design.

Then in 1971 something happened that changed everything and brought the Star Clipper to the forefront. The maximum development budget was reduced by 50% by the Office of Management and Budget, going from a whopping $10 billion to a mere $5 billion.

This is when the Star Clipper became the most viable option as the costs for a stage-and-a-half design were much lesser because it involved the engineering of only one spacecraft. Despite this, in the end, it was not Lockheed’s version that would eventually be chosen to be built, but North American Aviation’s take on the concept.

A western water pump windmill is a device powered by wind to draw water from a well and pump it to the surface, typically used on farms and ranches in the American West to provide water for homes, livestock, and crops. Key features include a tower, a rotatable tail for facing the wind, a self-governing mechanism to adjust sail area in high winds, and a pump rod connecting to a piston in a cylinder at the bottom of the well. Daniel Halladay's 1854 invention was the first commercially successful American model, revolutionizing settlement of the Plains by making water independence possible. 
How it Works
1. Wind Capture:
The wind spins the mill's blades, which are designed to catch the wind and rotate the mechanism.
2. Self-Regulation:
A tail vane turns the mill into the wind. In strong winds, the mechanism automatically turns the blades partially out of the wind to prevent damage.
3. Pump Operation:
The rotational energy is transferred down the tower by a connecting rod to a pump.
4. Water Lift:
A piston on the end of this rod moves up and down, drawing water from the well to a storage tank or another location.
Historical Significance
Settlement:
Water pump windmills made settlement on the Great Plains and other parts of the West possible by providing a reliable, independent water source.
Agricultural Expansion:
They allowed farmers and ranchers to expand operations by watering large numbers of livestock and irrigating crops without being tied to natural water sources.
Iconic Status:
Windmills became a symbol of the American West, reflecting the ingenuity and hard work of homesteaders.
Key Innovations
Daniel Halladay (1854):
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Invented the American-type windmill, which was smaller, cheaper, and self-governing, making it practical for settlers.
Materials:
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Early models were primarily wood, but later versions incorporated metal blades and components, leading to increased durability and use.
Self-Governing Mechanism:
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This feature allowed the windmill to function reliably in a wide range of wind speeds by automatically adjusting the sail's angle or size

The current SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy booster have a stainless steel hull thickness of approximately 3.97 mm (0.156 in), and are constructed by welding together rings of stainless steel. This design marked a major shift from early carbon composite concepts for the rocket, which was originally known as the Big Falcon Rocket (BFR).
History of the Starship/BFR design
Initial carbon composite design: In 2018, early concepts for the BFR were built using carbon composites. At the time, early prototype sections were estimated to be between 12 and 25 mm thick.
Switch to stainless steel: Later in 2018, SpaceX announced the switch from carbon composites to stainless steel for the entire Starship and Super Heavy structure. Elon Musk cited reasons including lower cost, increased strength at cryogenic temperatures, and the ability of stainless steel to handle high temperatures.
First stainless steel prototypes: The first stainless steel prototypes used 301L stainless steel. Following pressure tests and iterative improvements, the alloy was updated to 304L stainless steel.
Evolution of hull thickness: The earliest steel prototypes, such as Starship SN1, were built with a 3.97 mm thickness. An anecdote from Elon Musk's biography describes his decision to push for thinner 4 mm tank walls over the nervous objections of engineers. Later, test articles like SN7.2 were briefly experimented with even thinner 3 mm steel, but recent production vehicles have remained at the 4 mm thickness.
Construction and thermal protection
Construction process: The 9-meter diameter hull is manufactured by rolling sheets of stainless steel into rings, which are then stacked and welded together.
Integrated structure: The stainless steel hull acts as both the external skin and the propellant tanks for the vehicle's liquid methane and liquid oxygen.
Heat shield for re-entry: While the steel can withstand high temperatures, the side of the Starship that faces the wind during re-entry is covered with approximately 18,000 hexagonal ceramic tiles for additional thermal protection.
Continuous development: SpaceX continues to iterate on the design and materials used. Following flight test 4, upgraded heat shield tiles were installed on the flight 5 Starship, along with a secondary ablative layer underneath the tiles for added protection against overheating

AI Overview
For a two-manned Mars mission, food and supplies must cover a multi-year journey, including six months of transit each way and a long stay on the surface. Astronauts would rely on a hybrid system: a supply of packaged, shelf-stable food and advanced regenerative systems for producing fresh food, recycling water, and managing waste.

Food system
The food system must be nutritious, reliable, and varied to prevent "menu fatigue," which can lead to inadequate calorie intake.
During transit (approx. 6 months each way)
Packaged meals: The crew would rely on food similar to that on the International Space Station (ISS), but with a shelf life of three to five years. Examples of current space foods include thermostabilized pouches, rehydratable meals, and intermediate-moisture items like nuts and crackers.

Menu variety:
Menus are typically on a weekly rotation to provide variety and psychological comfort. Food scientists at NASA's Space Food Systems Laboratory develop and test space foods for nutritional value, taste, and safety.
Nutritional supplements: Vitamins and minerals, particularly Vitamin D, Vitamin K, and calcium, are crucial for mitigating bone and muscle loss in microgravity.

Low-sodium food:
To prevent excessive calcium excretion, a negative effect of high sodium intake, space food is being reformulated to reduce sodium content.

On Mars' surface (approx. 18 months)
In-situ food production:
Crew members would grow crops in a specialized habitat to supplement pre-packaged meals. This provides fresh produce, reduces reliance on Earth, and offers psychological benefits.

Potential crops:
NASA's analog missions test crops like leafy greens, herbs, and small fruits. The European Space Agency (ESA) has also researched staple crops such as potatoes, wheat, and soybeans.

Food processing:
A Martian galley would allow astronauts to process and cook the harvested ingredients.

Waste management:
Used food packaging must be efficiently managed since there is no way to incinerate it. Lighter materials with sufficient barrier properties will be used.

Supplies and equipment
In addition to food, a Mars mission requires highly reliable and efficient life support systems, medical gear, and crew equipment.
Life support and environmental control

Water recycling systems:
Closed-loop systems are essential for recycling water from urine, wastewater, and humidity. Water can also be extracted from Martian soil and ice.

Atmosphere revitalization:
Regenerative systems would scrub carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and use it to produce oxygen (O2). Crop growth would also contribute to oxygen production.

Radiation shielding:
Specialized gear or materials are needed to protect the crew from high radiation exposure during transit and on the Martian surface.

Temperature control:
Reliable systems for managing temperature and humidity inside the habitat.

Health and hygiene
Medical kit:
A lightweight, compact, but comprehensive medical kit is necessary. Researchers use predictive models to determine the most likely health issues and prioritize supplies.

Exercise equipment:
Compact exercise gear, such as resistance bands, is vital for combating muscle atrophy and bone loss in a low-gravity environment.

Personal hygiene:
Toothbrushes, wet wipes, and sanitizer. Water-conserving systems are essential for laundry and personal cleaning.

Mission and surface exploration
Spacesuits:
Extravehicular Activity (EVA) suits are required for surface exploration and emergencies.

Power systems:
Reliable and lightweight power sources, such as fission surface power systems, are needed to power all equipment.
Communication: Equipment for constant communication and navigation.

Scientific equipment:
Tools and instruments for research and exploration

Based on recent SpaceX flights, the white residue on Starship's nose cone after reentry is from ablative insulation material that became exposed to the high heat of atmospheric entry. This occurred in areas where SpaceX deliberately removed some of the protective tiles for testing.
For example, after a late August 2025 flight, SpaceX CEO Elon Musk confirmed that the discoloration was the result of a thermal protection system experiment.
The purpose of the experiment
Testing different heat shield designs: SpaceX has been experimenting with various thermal protection configurations. On recent flights, the company has intentionally removed some of Starship's heat shield tiles to test different materials, including metallic tiles, and to see if other systems can compensate for missing tiles.
Exposing the insulation: In the areas where the tiles were removed, the underlying white ablative insulation was directly exposed to the high-temperature plasma of reentry.
Creating a white vapor deposit: The extreme heat caused some of this insulation material to vaporize. This vapor then re-condensed as a white coating on the cooler sections of the nose cone.
A different kind of test
The ablative insulation that appeared white after reentry is a departure from the polished steel Starship prototypes. For certain operational versions, like the Human Landing System (HLS) for the moon, a white thermal coat will be used. This is done to reflect sunlight and help with temperature regulation while in space. However, the post-reentry white residue is a byproduct of a specific experimental process, not the intended final coloration

AI Overview
Starship turned orange after re-entry due to experimental metallic heat shield tiles that oxidized, forming iron oxide. This orange color is a result of these metallic test tiles reacting with atomic oxygen in the atmosphere at high speeds, while white patches were from deliberately removed tiles exposing white insulation. This discoloration indicates the success of these new metallic tiles and insulation testing during Flight 10, with Elon Musk confirming the phenomenon was intended to observe these materials.
Details of the Orange Coloration
Metallic Test Tiles:
The primary cause of the orange coloration was the use of experimental metallic heat shield tiles on the flight.
Oxidation:
These metallic tiles, likely stainless steel, oxidized rapidly during re-entry at Mach 25, reacting with the atmospheric oxygen to form a distinct orange, iron oxide layer.
Intended Experiment:
SpaceX deliberately placed these metallic tiles in specific areas and intentionally removed some ceramic tiles to expose the underlying insulation.
White Areas and Insulation
Deliberate Removal:
The white areas seen on Starship are from areas where the standard ceramic heat shield tiles were intentionally removed to test the white insulation beneath.
White Insulation:
This insulation, made of heat-resistant composites, was designed to withstand re-entry temperatures and reflect heat. Unlike the metallic tiles, it did not contain easily oxidizable metals, causing it to retain its white color.
Significance of the Event
Testing and Reusability:
The orange discoloration is not a sign of failure; rather, it's a visual indication of SpaceX's ongoing material science experiments to develop and test new thermal protection systems for future Starship missions, aiming for increased reusability.
Confirmation of Success:
Elon Musk confirmed that the heat shield tiles largely stayed attached, suggesting the latest upgrades are performing well, despite the unusual colors.

A "hot chimney updraft pipe" is the central component of a chimney system where an updraft, or the upward flow of hot exhaust gases, is created and maintained. This upward movement is driven by the principle that hot air is less dense than cold air, causing it to rise.
How the updraft works
The updraft is the engine of a chimney, pulling smoke and combustion gases out of a building and supplying the fire with fresh oxygen.
Temperature difference: The heat from a fire warms the air and gases inside the chimney, making them lighter than the cooler air outside. This temperature difference causes the hot, lighter air to rise.
Pressure difference: The rising hot air creates a negative pressure (low-pressure area) inside the chimney, which pulls air from the firebox and the surrounding area upward. Meanwhile, higher-pressure atmospheric air is pushed into the appliance's air intake, feeding the fire with oxygen.
Continuous cycle: This process establishes a continuous cycle of airflow that ensures smoke and dangerous carbon monoxide are vented safely outside.
Factors affecting the updraft
Several factors can influence the strength and reliability of a chimney's updraft:
Chimney height: A taller chimney generally produces a stronger updraft because it increases the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the flue. The general rule for residential systems is that the chimney pipe must be at least 3 feet above the roof and 2 feet taller than anything within 10 feet.
Temperature difference: A greater temperature difference between the inside and outside air results in a stronger draft. For example, a cold chimney can cause a reverse draft or "backdraft" when you first start a fire.
Obstructions: Blockages like soot, creosote, or debris can restrict airflow and weaken the draft.
Negative air pressure: Air-tight modern homes can create a negative pressure environment that works against the chimney's natural draft. Installing a combustion air kit or opening a window slightly can help.
Pipe configuration: Excessive bends or horizontal runs in a chimney pipe can decrease the draft, as each turn adds friction and slows the airflow.
Solving updraft issues
If a chimney isn't drafting properly, it can fill a room with smoke, which is a serious health and safety hazard. Solutions include:
Pre-heating the flue: To fix a cold backdraft, you can warm the flue with a rolled-up, lit newspaper or a heat gun for a few minutes before starting the fire. This creates a small, initial updraft to get the system working correctly.
Proper sealing: Seal any gaps or cracks around the fireplace or chimney to prevent air leaks.
Damper installation: Consider installing an air damper to better regulate airflow.
Wind considerations: A chimney cap with a special design, such as a Vacu-Stack, can prevent wind from blowing back down the chimney