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After milling to reduce its particle size, JSC Mars-1A can geopolymerize in alkaline solutions forming a solid material. Tests show that the maximum compressive and flexural strength of the 'martian' geopolymer is comparable to that of common clay bricks.

To build with Mars regolith, milling equipment (like vibratory/planetary ball mills) reduces particle size, while separation methods use techniques like laser sintering, cold sintering (CSP), polymer binders, or microwave systems to bind or melt regolith into structures, often requiring 3D printers for shaping, aiming for materials like bricks, shielding, or metal parts from extracted elements like iron/titanium. Key processes involve size reduction (milling) and consolidation (sintering/binding) to create usable materials like "Mars concrete" or fused components, with focus on robotic, energy-efficient systems.
Milling Equipment & Processes
Ball Milling (Planetary/Vibratory): Used to reduce particle size (PSD) of raw regolith simulant, with planetary mills being faster but roller banks better for large slurries.
Sieving: Separates milled particles into specific size ranges (e.g., 60-mesh).
Separation & Consolidation Technologies
Laser Sintering: Uses high-power lasers to melt and fuse regolith into solid layers, creating paving or structural elements.
Cold Sintering (CSP): Binds regolith with water/alkaline solutions at low temperatures (under 250°C) and pressure, forming strong bricks or blocks.
Polymer Binders: Mixes regolith with polymers (made from Martian CO2/water) for 3D printing concrete-like materials.
Microwave/Solar Sintering: Alternative methods to use focused energy for hardening regolith.
Metal Extraction: Processes like carbonyl metallurgy or vapor deposition extract iron and other metals for 3D printing steel parts.
Additive Manufacturing & End Products
3D Printing (Extrusion/Powder Bed): Deposits processed regolith/binders layer-by-layer, building structures like domes, habitats, tools, or rebar.
Products: Sintered bricks, concrete-like blocks, radiation shielding, metal components (rebar, gears, tools), and coatings.
Key Considerations
In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU): The core principle, maximizing use of Martian soil.
Energy Efficiency: Focus on low-energy methods like cold sintering.
Robotics: Automation is crucial for mining, milling, and construction

The idea of building settlements on Mars is a popular goal of billionaires, space agencies and interplanetary enthusiasts.
But construction demands materials, and we can't ship it all from Earth: it cost US$243 million just to send NASA's one ton Perseverance Rover to the Red Planet.

Unless we're building a settlement for ants, we'll need much, much more stuff. So how do we get it there?

CSIRO Postdoctoral Fellow and Swinburne alum Dr. Deddy Nababan has been pondering this question for years. His answer lies in the Martian dirt, known as regolith.

Building an off-world foundry
As it turns out, Mars has all the ingredients needed to make native metals. This includes iron-rich oxides in regolith and carbon from its thin atmosphere, which act as a reducing agent.

Swinburne University of Technology astrometallurgist, Professor Akbar Rhamdhani, is working with Dr. Nababan to test this process with regolith simulant—an artificial recreation of the stuff found on Mars. The work was published in two papers in the journal Acta Astronautica.

https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retriev … 6525002814

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a … via%3Dihub

"We picked a simulant with very similar properties to that found at Gale Crater on Mars and processed them on Earth with simulated Mars conditions to give us a good idea of how the process would perform off-world," he said.

The simulant is placed inside a chamber at Mars surface pressure and heated at increasing temperatures. The experiments showed pure iron metal formation around 1,000°C, with liquid iron-silicon alloys produced around 1400°C.

"At high enough temperatures, all of the metals coalesced into one large droplet. This could then be separated from liquid slag the same way it is on Earth," Professor Rhamdhani said.

Along with Dr. Nababan, Prof Rhamdhani is collaborating with CSIRO's Dr. Mark Pownceby to further advance the process. They're particularly focused on making metals with zero waste, where the byproducts of the process are used to make useful items.

If you can't ship it, make it
ISRU is a growing area of space science because in rocket launches, every kilogram counts. While the cost of launches is going down, the demands of human exploration are immense.

But huge developments are already happening, including the first demonstration of ISRU off-world: The MOXIE experiment onboard the Mars Perseverance rover produced breathable oxygen using only the carbon dioxide in the planet's atmosphere.

Metal production is the next giant leap. Professor Rhamdhani hopes Mars-made alloys could be used as shells for housing or research facilities, and in machinery for excavation.

"There are certainly challenges. We need to better understand how these alloys would perform over time, and of course whether this process can be recreated on the real Martian surface," he said.

But in the meantime, Swinburne and its partners are doubling down. Professor Rhamdhani together with Dr. Matt Shaw and Dr. Deddy Nababan from CSIRO recently delivered a four-day joint Swinburne-CSIRO bespoke workshop on astrometallurgy in South Korea, and the feedback was promising.

"We're starting to see increased interest in this field globally as the world gets serious about Mars exploration," he said.

"To make it happen, we're going to need experts from many fields—mining, engineering, geology, and much more."

For Dr. Nababan, the benefits go beyond exploration. He hopes their research will also drive more efficient metallurgy on Earth.

"By doing this, I wish that I can help the development of space exploration, and at the end it will bring good to human life here on Earth."

For decades, the idea of checking into a hotel among the stars has been confined to the realm of science fiction, but that is about to change: the world’s first true orbital resort is now set to launch in 2027. This groundbreaking facility promises to redefine luxury tourism, offering amenities far beyond what one would expect from a mere space station; guests will be able to enjoy fine dining restaurants, fully-stocked bars, a gym, a concert hall, and even a cinema, all while orbiting the planet. But while the opening year is confirmed, the question remains: How exactly will this colossal structure generate gravity for its guests, and what astronomical price tag will come with a room key to the cosmos?

How vacationing in space will become a reality
The era of space tourism is on the horizon, and it’s set to reach new heights in 2027 with the launch of Voyager Station, the world’s first hotel in orbit, developed by Above: Space Development Corporation (formerly Orbital Assembly Corporation). This state-of-the-art luxury resort will circle the Earth while providing artificial gravity, accommodating up to 280 guests and 112 crew members at a time.

The station’s innovative design draws inspiration from decades of aerospace research, including the rotating wheel concept originally envisioned by Wernher von Braun. By spinning at roughly 1.5 rotations per minute, Voyager Station will initially replicate the Moon’s gravity and can later be adjusted to mimic conditions on Mars or even Earth, ensuring a comfortable stay for visitors.

Launching from Kennedy Space Center, Voyager Station promises unforgettable experiences above the planet. Upon arrival, travelers dock at a central zero-gravity hub before moving via pressurized elevators to the outer modules, where artificial gravity creates a familiar, Earth-like environment.

What guests can expect aboard Voyager Station
Voyager Station is designed as a vast rotating ring, consisting of 24 specialized modules and spanning approximately 125,000 square feet. Each module serves a distinct purpose, creating a seamless blend of luxury, entertainment, and innovation for guests in orbit. Visitors can enjoy gourmet meals and drinks at the onboard restaurant and bar, attend live musical performances in a concert hall, and stay active in a gym that creatively takes advantage of low gravity. A cinema provides both classic films and exclusive space-themed content, while observation decks offer breathtaking panoramic views of Earth.

Guests will move between modules through pressurized transfer shafts, ensuring safety and comfort throughout the station. Before their journey, all travelers undergo comprehensive training to familiarize themselves with zero-gravity movement, the use of space equipment, and emergency procedures. Voyager Station itself is equipped with advanced life support systems and emergency protocols, giving visitors peace of mind as they experience the wonders of space. The result is a meticulously planned, immersive adventure that transforms the idea of a vacation into a truly out-of-this-world experience.

The price of staying in space
For now, space travel remains the domain of the ultra-wealthy — a single trip can cost tens of millions. One early example is Oliver Daemen, a Dutch teenager who became the youngest person to travel to space when he paid $28 million for a brief flight with Blue Origin, the aerospace company founded by Jeff Bezos that specializes in suborbital and orbital space tourism. But the team behind Voyager Station aims to change that. Their vision is to make space vacations more comparable in price to luxury cruises on Earth. According to Tim Alatorre, co-founder, COO, and chair of the board at Above Space, the station itself is relatively affordable to construct; the primary expense lies in reaching orbit.

Alatorre notes that advances by companies like SpaceX could soon dramatically reduce launch costs, bringing orbital stays within reach for a wider audience within the next decade. Experts say this initiative represents a historic turning point, because for the first time, everyday people, not just trained astronauts, will be able to live, dine, and exercise in orbit.

How commercial space is heating up
Voyager Station isn’t venturing into uncharted territory alone. Other companies are making strides in commercial space as well. Axiom Space, in partnership with NASA, is developing a commercial module on the International Space Station that will eventually evolve into an independent platform. Meanwhile, Blue Origin and Sierra Space are collaborating on Orbital Reef, a new commercial space station.

What sets Voyager Station apart, however, is its singular focus on tourism. Designed with entertainment, leisure, and hospitality at its core, it promises an experience unlike any other in orbit. To prepare for the full-scale station, Above Space will test smaller prototypes — the Gravity Ring and Pioneer Stations — by 2025, refining the technology and ensuring a seamless experience for future guests.

Beyond offering an unforgettable vacation, Voyager Station opens the door to a host of other opportunities. The orbiting resort will support scientific research, educational programs, entertainment ventures, and entirely new ways of working in space, ushering in a bold new era of human activity above Earth. With tourism at the forefront, the station represents a major leap toward making space not just a destination, but a thriving, multifaceted environment for exploration, learning, and leisure.

Submarine air quality management is crucial for crew health in confined spaces, using sophisticated HVAC systems with HEPA/carbon filters, electrostatic precipitators, and CO2 scrubbers (soda lime/regenerative) to remove particulates, odors, and gases like carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2). Key processes include oxygen generation (electrolysis), contaminant removal (catalytic burners, filters), constant monitoring (CAMS, NASA tech, portable detectors for O2, CO2, CO, etc.), and strict exposure limits (EEGLs/CEGLs) set by bodies like the National Academies, balancing life support with equipment needs.
Key Systems & Methods
Air Circulation & Filtration: Recirculated air passes through fans, HEPA filters for particles, activated carbon for odors/VOCs, and electrostatic precipitators.
CO2 Removal: Lithium hydroxide (soda lime) or regenerative systems scrub exhaled CO2.
Oxygen Generation: Electrolysis of water (H2O from seawater) produces oxygen (O2); hydrogen (H2) is vented.
Contaminant Control:
CO/H2 Burners: Catalytic oxidizers (using Hapcalite) convert CO and H2 into CO2 and water.
Restricted Items List: Limiting volatile chemicals to reduce atmospheric buildup.
Monitoring & Control
Central Atmospheric Monitoring System (CAMS): Tracks O2, CO2, CO, hydrocarbons, refrigerants, etc..
Portable Detectors: Colorimetric tubes and handheld devices verify levels of acetone, ammonia, chlorine, etc..
Exposure Limits: U.S. Navy sets Emergency (1-hr, 24-hr) and Continuous (90-day) Exposure Guidance Levels (EEGLs/CEGLs) for numerous substances.
Challenges & Innovations
Confined Space: Lack of natural ventilation makes air management critical.
Storage: Non-regenerative systems need stored purification agents, using valuable space.
Research Focus: Developing regenerative technologies and refining exposure limits for contaminants like CO, formaldehyde, and others to enhance crew safety

NASA manages ISS air quality through sophisticated Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS) that actively remove CO2 (like Four Bed CO2 Scrubber), filter trace contaminants (TCCS, catalytic oxidation), monitor for particulates (Mochii microscope, AQM monitors), and ensure correct gas mixtures, using advanced sensors (ANITA-2) and strict guidelines (SMACs) to maintain a safe breathing environment for astronauts, tackling challenges from equipment off-gassing, spills, and crew metabolic byproducts.
Key Air Quality Management Systems & Methods:
Atmosphere Revitalization System (ARS): The core system responsible for keeping air fresh.
Carbon Dioxide Removal: Uses sorbent beds that capture CO2, which are then regenerated by heat and vacuum.
Trace Contaminant Control System (TCCS): Removes harmful chemicals via filters (activated carbon, catalytic oxidation) and adsorption.
Monitoring:
Air Quality Monitors (AQM) & ANITA: Gas chromatographs and spectrometers analyze air for dozens of compounds in near real-time.
Mochii: A miniature electron microscope for real-time particle monitoring.
Major Constituent Analyzer (MCA): Measures main gases (O2, N2, CO2).
Contaminant Sources: Sources include crew metabolism, equipment off-gassing, spills, and material degradation.
Guidelines: Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations (SMACs) set limits for specific contaminants to protect crew health.
Current & Future Focus:
Advanced Sensors: New sensors (like the H2 sensor) are tested for better detection.
Research: Investigating materials to minimize contaminant off-gassing and studying microbial life in the air.
Operational Use: ANITA-2 is being used for operational decisions on trace contaminants

The ISS uses advanced air scrubber systems, primarily the Four Bed Carbon Dioxide Scrubber (4BCO2) and the Amine Swingbed, to remove crew-exhaled CO2 and humidity, regenerating air by using sorbent materials (like zeolites/amines) that absorb contaminants and release them into space or use heat/vacuum for regeneration, minimizing resupply needs and recycling water for future missions like Artemis. These systems are crucial for long-duration stays, recycling vital resources and ensuring breathable air.
Key Technologies & Methods:
Four Bed Carbon Dioxide Scrubber (4BCO2): A next-gen system using commercial adsorbent materials (molecular sieves) to capture CO2 and water vapor, venting the CO2 and allowing water to be recycled.
Amine Swingbed: Uses two beds of amine-based sorbents; one absorbs CO2/humidity while the other is regenerated (desorbed) by vacuum/heat, offering a continuous, energy-efficient process.
Sabatier Reactor (ACLS): Part of the Advanced Closed Loop System (ACLS), it reacts captured CO2 with hydrogen (from water electrolysis) to form water (recycled) and methane (vented).
Zeolites: Older methods used zeolite minerals to trap CO2, which was then released into space when the beds were exposed to vacuum.
LiOH Canisters: Lithium Hydroxide canisters serve as a backup, chemically absorbing CO2 in a non-regenerative process, requiring replacement.
Trace Contaminant Control System (TCCS): Removes other harmful gases and particulates, ensuring air quality.
How They Work Together:
Capture: Sorbent beds (zeolite, amine) or LiOH filters pull CO2 from the cabin air.
Regeneration/Disposal:
Regenerative systems (4BCO2, Amine Swingbed) vent CO2 to space, recover water, and reuse the sorbents.
Non-regenerative LiOH canisters are replaced when saturated.
Recycling: The recovered water is processed for drinking and creating oxygen.
These systems create a "closed-loop" environment, essential for keeping the crew alive and reducing reliance on Earth resupply missions

It is not possible to provide a simple, accurate "lumens chart" for a specific grow light's power input (400 W/m²) because lumens are not the correct measurement for plant growth and a direct conversion from wattage to lumens is not feasible without knowing the light's specific spectrum.
Why Lumens Don't Work for Grow Lights
Lumens measure brightness as perceived by the human eye, which is most sensitive to the green/yellow part of the spectrum. Plants primarily use blue and red wavelengths for photosynthesis, which the human eye perceives less efficiently.
For growing plants, the relevant metric is PPFD (Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density), measured in micromoles per square meter per second ($\mu$mol/m²/s). Mars Hydro and other grow light manufacturers provide PPFD charts, not lumen charts.
Mars Hydro PPFD and Wattage Guidelines
While a specific "400 W/m²" product isn't standard, Mars Hydro recommends specific PPFD ranges for different growth stages and suggests the following guidelines for typical LED grow lights (watts per square foot is a general rule):
Growth Stage     Recommended PPFD ($\mu$mol/m²/s)    Typical Wattage per sq. ft (approx.)
Seedling    100 – 300    10 - 20 W/sq. ft
Vegetative    400 – 600    20 - 30 W/sq. ft
Flowering    600 – 1000    30 - 50 W/sq. ft
Key Takeaway
To determine the ideal setup for your specific Mars Hydro model, you should:
Consult the manufacturer's official PPFD map/chart for your specific model (e.g., TSW2000, FC-E4800) at various hanging heights. This information is typically available on the product page or the Mars Hydro website, such as on their guide to buying LED grow lights or the Mars Hydro blog.
Use a PAR meter or a smartphone app designed for measuring grow light intensity (PPFD/Lux) to get accurate readings at the canopy level.
Adjust the hanging height and dimmer settings according to the plant's current life cycle to achieve the target PPFD, rather than focusing on a lumen value or a fixed wattage/area ratio

The solar irradiance of \(400\text{\ W/m}^{2}\) on the surface of Mars is approximately \(46,100\text{\ lumens\ per\ square\ meter}\) (lux) under certain clear sky conditions. The conversion from watts per square meter (irradiance) to lumens per square meter (lux, which is a measure of illuminance) depends on the luminous efficacy of the light source's specific spectrum, which is different for Mars' dusty atmosphere than for Earth's. The general conversion factor used for a sunlight-like spectrum is about 93 lumens per watt, though values vary based on atmospheric conditions. Mars Illumination BBCode Chart The following chart uses the conversion factor derived from laboratory measurements (approx. 115.25 lux per W/m²) for a value close to 400 W/m². This is presented in BBCode format. Mars Solar Irradiance to Illuminance (Lux) Conversion [TABLE][TR][TH]Irradiance (W/m²)[/TH][TH]Illuminance (Lux/Lumens per m²)[/TH][/TR][TR][TD]400 W/m²[/TD][TD]~46,100 lx[/TD][/TR][/TABLE] For context, bright sunlight on Earth's surface at noon is about 100,000 lux. The 400 W/m² level on Mars is comparable to an overcast day on Earth or the sun on Earth at noon on a winter day in certain northern latitudes

The brightness of the sun on Earth is not measured in a single lumen value, as lumens measure total light output and the brightness perceived on Earth varies by location and atmospheric conditions. Instead, a common way to quantify it is in lux, which measures illuminance per square meter. At its peak, direct sunlight can reach approximately 100,000 to 140,000 lux. Peak sunlight: A clear, direct sun at its highest point in the sky can deliver a very intense illuminance of around 100,000 to 140,000 lux.Atmospheric effects: The exact amount of lux on the ground varies based on the sun's position and atmospheric conditions like cloud cover, which scatter and filter the light.Power vs. lumens: The sun's total power output is about \(1360\) watts per square meter above the atmosphere (the solar constant). However, lux is a better measure for how bright it appears to the human eye because it accounts for the varying sensitivity of our vision across different wavelengths of light

For a Mars dome used for agriculture, the required LED lighting intensity should provide a Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD) in the range of 400 to 1000 µmol/m²/s, depending on the growth stage and specific crop type. The specific dome dimensions (200m diameter, 120m tall) define the physical space, but the intensity is determined by the biological needs of the plants being grown within that space.
Key Metrics for Martian Agriculture Lighting
In a controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) setting like a Mars habitat, natural sunlight is generally insufficient or too hazardous due to radiation and dust, making artificial LED lighting the primary solution.
Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD): This is the critical measurement for plant growth, quantifying the number of photosynthetically active photons (400-700 nm wavelength) that hit a square meter each second (µmol/m²/s).
Target Intensity Ranges (PPFD):
Seedlings/Clones: 200-400 µmol/m²/s.
Vegetative Growth: 400-600 µmol/m²/s.
Flowering/Fruiting (high-light plants): 600-1000 µmol/m²/s (or even higher with CO2 supplementation).
System Design Considerations
The large size of the dome requires a sophisticated lighting system design, likely utilizing a vast array of high-efficiency, full-spectrum LED fixtures rather than a few central lights.
Fixture Placement: To ensure even light distribution and the correct PPFD, fixtures would need to be strategically placed and potentially layered (e.g., in vertical farming racks).
Energy Efficiency: High-quality LEDs consume less power for the same light output. Given the energy constraints on Mars, maximizing efficiency is paramount.
Light Spectrum ("Light Recipes"): Different light spectra can optimize biomass or nutrient content. A full-spectrum or "white" light with some far-red might be chosen for balanced growth, while a red/blue mix could maximize certain phytonutrients.
Daily Light Integral (DLI): The total amount of light received over a day is also crucial. For high-yield crops, this typically ranges from 10-30 mol/m²/day.
Ultimately, the exact intensity will be a function of the specific crops selected for the habitat and the overall system design (e.g., if CO2 levels are elevated, higher light intensities can be utilized for maximum growth